The Leadership of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Human Intelligence Essay Example

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Human Intelligence Essay Example Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Human Intelligence Essay Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Human Intelligence Essay Abstraction Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) is the intelligence exhibits by machines. AI enable machines to believe and work out jobs somehow human-like and act or execute in human-like mode. AI is uncomparable with human intelligence. However, AI can be implemented in humans’ day-to-day lives to help them with complicated undertakings. One of the human intelligence issues is holding barriers in executing good determination devising. The facet in determination devising is besides applied in a few AI field such as health care and robotics which will be discussed farther in this paper. Introduction Technology is emerging twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours where people are hunger for more sophisticated engineering to help them or give them new positions or cognition. Artificial Intelligence or normally abbreviated as AI is the intelligence shown by machines or package, which normally involves human-like intelligence. It has become an academic field of survey that focused on making intelligence. The term â€Å"Artificial Intelligence† was coined by late John McCarthy of Stanford University in 1956 and after two old ages, he published his paper which regarded by many as the first 1 on logical AI ( Bogue, 2014 ) . Alan Turing, a British mathematician, cryptographer, computing machine scientist and life scientist, proposed a trial called Turing trial to find the machine’s ability to expose intelligence. The trial requires a human justice to hold natural conversations with a human and a machine that is designed to bring forth human-like public presentation. If the j ustice is failed to separate which 1 is human and which one is machine, the machine is considered demoing intelligence. CASE STUDY Human INTELLIGENCE IN DECISION MAKING Human intelligence is considered as the most powerful tools in determination devising. Definition of human intelligence is that a individual has the rational capacity of a homo, which characterized by perceptual experience, consciousness, self-awareness every bit good as will. Through their intelligence, worlds possess a cognitive ability to larn, organize constructs, understand, use logic and ground. The abilities besides include the capacities to acknowledge forms, comprehend thoughts, program, work out job, make determinations, retain and usage linguistic communication to pass on. Intelligence enables worlds to see and believe, while determination devising can be viewed as cognitive methodological analysis used to find a strong belief or a design among a few options of imaginable results. Each determination settling on process delivers a last determination that could perchance arouse activity. Choice or determination devising is the probe of acknowledging and picking picks focused around the qualities and disposition of the head. Decision devising is one of the focal exercising of disposal and an huge piece of any methodological analysis of use. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN ROBOTICS Application of AI as the most important and exciting field in robotic development had been argued by many industrial observers. AI engineering has the potency to play a function in a diverseness of automatons including comrade and caring automatons such as independent land, sea and air vehicles, humanoid types, hunt and deliverance automatons, swarm automatons, military automatons and robotic playthings. The component of AI have a function to play for case deft use, independent pilotage, machine vision, address acknowledgment, pattern acknowledgment and location and function ( Bogue, 2014 ) . Humanoid automatons and independent, nomadic automatons are two field of robotic that represent the greatest figure of AI construct. Honda’s Asimo, android automaton is a consequence of two decennaries of research in humanoid robotics by Honda applied scientists. Asimo has the ability to acknowledge traveling objects, gestures, positions, sounds, faces and interact in a human-like mode. Figure 1 Honda’s Asimo The intent of developing robotic vehicles and independent nomadic automatons is to carry on specific undertakings such as hunt and deliverance operations. A robotic vehicle called â€Å"Stanley† is developed in 2005 at Stanford University has won the Defense Advances Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) Grand Challenge by driving autonomously for 131 stat mis along a trail that the vehicle neer gone through earlier ( Bogue, 2014 ) . In the conference of the Robotic Industries Association ( RIA ) in November 2006, John Felice, VP Manufacturing Technology and Global Enterprise, Chrysler Group discuss the fabrication challenge confronting Chrysler. Reducing costs while remain competitory in the concern is the obvious challenge. However, the chief job arises from the increasing figure of auto theoretical account and the frequence of theoretical account alterations. These conversions are clip consuming and could be 1000000s of dollars. John Felice proposed that robotic is the cardina l to work out the job ( Wilson, 2006 ) . Major companies should heighten their research squad to applied AI component in industrial robotics. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE The promotion in machine technology has swayed the scientists to make programming with the intent of helping specializers in settling on pick without reding the governments specifically. The package development misuses the capableness of human learning ability, for illustration, concluding, doing pick, accommodating ( by meeting ) and legion others. AI is non a new thought, yet it has been acknowledged as an issue invention in package technology. It has been connected in legion scopes, for illustration, direction, concern, curative and piecing. In most making nation’s deficient of medicative pro has built the mortality of patients, experienced different infections. The deficient of renewing pros will neer be overcome inside a brief clip of clip. The constitutions of higher acquisition could be that as it may, do a prompt move to present whatever figure specializers as would be prudent. In any instance, while sitting tight for standbies to stop up specializers and the specializ ers to weave up experts, legion patients may already decease. Current pattern for renewing intervention obliged patients to advocate maestro for farther analysis and intervention. Other curative specializer might non hold adequate command or experience to pull off certain high-hazard illnesss. In any instance, the delayed period for medical specialties typically takes a twosome of yearss, hebdomads or even months. When the patients see the specializer, the complaints may hold officially spread out. As the greater portion of the high-hazard illness could merely be cured at the early phase, the patients may necessitate to pine away over whatever remains of their life ( Ishak A ; Siraj, n.d ) . Machine plan known as Medical Decision-Support System was intended to assist well-being experts settle on clinical determination ( Shortliffe, 1987 ) . The model manages medicative information and larning country in naming patients’ conditions and proposing suited medical specialties for the specific patients. Patient-Centered Health Information Systems is a patient focused renewing informations model created to help checking, supervising and decipher apprehension s medical history ( Szolovits et al. , 1994 ) . Likewise the system gives support to patient and curative specializer. The system serves to heighten the quality of medical pick devising, construct patient consistency and minimizes iatrogenic unwellness and medical mistakes. In medical, communicating is critical as new informations or new disclosure is the key for the hereafter endurance ( Shortliffe et al. , 2000 ) . In enlargement, communicating helps specializers sharing their penetration or expertness ( Detmer and Shortliffe, 1997 ) . As an illustration, a pro from Sydney can give online curative assistance to specialist at Kuala Lumpur who is handling a patient that suffers from serious malignant neoplastic disease job. An alternate specializer from other state, for illustration, United Kingdom can leave his experience pull offing the same instances. Communication between specializers or expert from other country helps specialist at Kuala Lumpur naming his patient and gives appropriate intervention. Figure 2 Example of communicating between specializers ( Information Sharing ) For illustration, AI is implemented in Healthcare is Remote Monitoring Of High-Risk Patients Using Artificial Intelligence by utilizing scheme and model for distant monitoring of bad patients utilizing unreal intelligence. A bulk of high hazard patients can be at the same clip checked without patient intercession. A patient hears inquiries in the specializer s voice at each monitoring brush and responds. The patient s reactions are recorded at a distant focal monitoring station and can be examined on line or subsequently ( Langen, Katz, Dempsey, A ; Pompano, 1993 ) . Artificial intelligence ( AI ) and voice engineering ( DECvoice ) are consolidated to show to the patient, during an observant session or experience, inquiries which would be chosen from a bulk of typical recorded enquiries. Inquiries to the patient are picked utilizing AI, in visible radiation of the patient s reaction, by parsing. The screen could take a few constructions, for illustration, for e.g. , uterine action s trips, glucometers, blood force per unit area turnups, pulse proctors, electroencephalographs, and so forth. Four phone lines are committed to every patient, one for the screen, one for the voice, one as a backup and one to feel failures. Dual tone matrix frequence signals ( DTMF ) may be utilized for transmittal of checkered marks and other informations which can be perceived by Decvoice, which is yet one sample of the voice technology which can be utilized ( Langen et al. , 1993 ) . The Artificial Intelligence model is determined by an easy to use Natural Language interface which guides the Voice model to direct ( talk ) appropriate inquiries, perceive ( listen for ) the patient s replies, update the patient s database, direct the telephone-patient monitoring, and rede the HMO office sing know aparting patient conditions. The informations obtained from the patient calls is accessible to the curative specializer on both a real-time footing when the calls are being made, or on a n ad-hoc footing after the calls are logged ( Langen et al. , 1993 ) . Figure 3 Example Remote Monitoring Of High-Risk Patients Professionals IN BOTH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND HUMAN INTELLIGENCE Experts and scientists are eager in doing machines which can copy humans’ intelligence. Somehow, AI shows undeniably great public presentations, in some instances even better than a human being. AI well has indefatigable public presentation by making undertakings without experiencing tired, unlike human. AI besides provides more logical decision-making, which is really utile in some instances. Completing undertaking besides easy as AI is like a false head, taught to make specific occupations. Human intelligence have barriers to acquire do a good decision-making. Harmonizing to Dr. Edward Russo and Dr. Paul J. H. Schoemaker, a simple method have been produce to avoid the determination barriers faced by human intelligence and can be categorized into four chief component. The first component is bordering which is forming the enquiry where this implies qualifying what must be chosen and make up ones minding in preparative manner what standard would do us tend toward one pick to an surrogate. Another component is garnering intelligence by looking for bot apprehensible actualities and reasonable ratings of â€Å"mysterious† that we will necessitate to settle on the pick. Third component would be coming to conclusion where sound framing and good intelligence do non vouch a wise determination. Humans merely unable to systematically do good determinations utilizing seat-of-the-pants judgement entirely, even with first-class informations in forepart of them. Worlds need to l arn from the feedback that they have acquired which is the last component for a good decision-making. Everybody needs to make a model for deriving from the effects of past picks. This usually means remaining informed sing what is expected to go on, deliberately guarding against functioning toward self-clarifications. CONS IN DECISION-MAKING OF HUMAN INTELLIGENCE AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE’S PERFORMANCE Good determinations are difficult to do and there are several barriers that occurs when a individual or people seeking to do or happen good determination. A good decision-maker must, consciously or unconsciously go through each stage of determinations doing procedure ( Westernberg, 1993 ) . As in the facet of human intelligence, one of the most common barrier that can disrupt superb determination devising is immersing in. In this state of affairs, people begin to garner information and range decision without first taking a few proceedingss to believe about the nucleus of the issue they are confronting or to believe through how they believe determinations like this one should be made. Peoples besides undergo frame sightlessness, which is another barrier to a good-decision devising. Frame sightlessness is where people puting out to work out the incorrect job because they have created a mental model for their determination with small idea, which causes them to overlook the best options or lose sight of of import aims. Lack of frame control is another barrier faced by human being in determination devising where they failed to consciously specify the job in more ways than one or being unduly influenced by others. Some people besides tend to experience overconfidence in their judgement. This state of affairs besides could blockade a good-decision devising as people failed to roll up the cardinal factual information because they are excessively confidence and excessively assured of their premises and sentiments. Another obstruction faced by people in acquiring a good-decision devising is unforesightful cutoffs, where they rely in suitably on â€Å"rules of thumb† such as implicitly swearing the most readily available information or grounding excessively much on convenient facts. When doing a determination, worlds have the inclination to believe that they can maintain all the information they discovered directly in their caputs and hence, improvise with small re adying. They should follow a systematic process when doing the concluding pick. When doing determinations within a group, common thing that happens is a group failure. Peoples in the group assume that with many smart people involved, good picks will follow automatically and this action will caused failure in pull offing group decision-making. Worlds are likely to protect their self-importance doing them gulling themselves about feedback. In this instance, they are failed to construe the grounds from past results for what it truly says. Worlds besides anticipating that experience will do lessons accessible of course and they tend to neither maintaining path of the effects of their picks, nor look intoing the consequences in ways to bring out their cardinal lessons. Decisions procedure needs to scrutinize and failure to this action means failed to make organized attack to understanding their ain decision-making, so that they remain invariably exposed to all the errors mentioned before . As in the affair of AI, machines have the possibility of dislocation which is disadvantageous. No affair how easy the undertaking can be completed by AI, if there is a instance of malfunction occurring, the whole thing means nil. AI besides have the inclination to lose the indispensable information or erroneously modified or overwrite them. AI or a computing machine system needs to be switched off on a day-to-day footing as consequences for care which restrain the end product and efficiency of the machine. RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION AI has the possible in assorted field of engineering such as computing machine scientific discipline, robotics, health care and even music. There are now turning attempts to unify these Fieldss of research and make new engineerings out of them. However, despite of all the mode of advanced attacks, there are still a far spread between unreal intelligence and human intelligence. Some people might reason that Ai is merely the affair of treating power, but some people believe that true AI will bring out the deep apprehension of how human intelligence plants. AI capablenesss are still questionable but in several decennaries to come, AI can assure infinite possibilities of growing in engineering. Mentions Westenberg, M. ( 1993 ) . Decision traps: The 10 barriers to brilliant decision-making A ; how to get the better of them. Acta Psychologica, 83 ( 1 ) , 67-69. doi:10.1016/0001-6918 ( 93 ) 90036-q. Ishak, W. H. W. , A ; Siraj, F. ( n.d ) . ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN MEDICAL APPLICATION: AN EXPLORATION. Langen, P. A. , Katz, J. S. , Dempsey, G. , A ; Pompano, J. ( 1993 ) .REMOTE MONITORING OF HIGH-RISK PATIENTS USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.Paper presented at the United States Patent. Szolovits, P. , Doyle, J. , Long, W. J. , Kohane, I. , and Pauker, S. G. ( 1994 ) . Guardian Angel: Patient-Centred Health Information Systems.Technical Report MIT/LCS/TR-604. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Shortliffe, E. H. , Fagan, L. M. and Yu, V. L. ( 2000 ) . The Infectious Diseases Physician and the Internet.In Mandell, G.L. , Bennett, J.E. and Dolin, R. ( Eds. ) , Mandell, Douglas,and Bennett s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, Churchill Livingstone, Inc. , Pennsylvania, pp. 3258-3263. Shortliffe, E. H. ( 1987 ) . Computer Programs to Support Clinical Decision Making.Journalof the American Medical Association, Vol. 258, No. 1. Detmer, W. M. and Shortliffe, E. H. ( 1997 ) . Using the Internet to Improve Knowledge Diffusion in Medicine.Communicationss of the Associations of Computing Machinery, Vol. 40, No. 8, pp. 101 108. Wilson, M. , A ; Wilson, M. ( 2007 ) . Feature Robotics Industry Forum – 2006. doi:10.1108/01439910710727432 Bogue, R. , A ; Bogue, R. ( 2014 ) . The function of unreal intelligence in robotics. doi:10.1108/IR-01-2014-0300.

Theology critical exegesis on Luke 102537. 'The Parable of the Good Essay

Theology critical exegesis on Luke 102537. 'The Parable of the Good Samaritan' - Essay Example First, the answer to the lawyer's question might be found in the Bible. Second, every person has different perception of what he reads and should find the answer to this question on his own. Thus, in this short reply Jesus has said that the way to salvation was already delivered to people and it is their responsibility to find it. Verses 27 and 28 are the summary of the right way of living "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all they soul, and with thy strength, and with all thy mind; and thy neighbor as thyself". This answer did not satisfy the lawyer and he further asked who can be considered the neighbor and received the reply. Verse 30-35 are the story of how the certain man was beaten by robbers and left half dead on the road. The priest has seen him but passed by. The same has done the Levite. Nevertheless, when the Samaritan saw this beaten man, he was moved with compassion and took care of him. After finishing this story, Jesus has asked the lawyer for his opinion who proved to be the neighbor for the beaten man and the lawyer replied that he was the one who showed mercy. Jesus noted, "Go and do likewise" (Luke 10: 37). Jesus did not reply directly to the asked question, but showed the example of what he meant. The golden rule of treating others, as you want to be treated can be also applied here. Traditionally pa Literal Analysis Traditionally parables and narratives are understood differently by different people, however, the meaning of the Parable of Good Samaritan is understood universally. Referring to the story, the man was walking on the road from Jerusalem to Jericho which is surrounded by the cliffs on both sides. Moreover, it descended over 3000 feet in only ten miles and was dangerous to walk at any time. Thus, it can be that the parable is not fictitious and is made up based on the real situation. Probably Jesus himself has walked this road with the disciples, even though it is very unlikely that the priest or the Levite would travel this road alone taking into account the numerous robbers living in the caves (Brown 1990). Historically, Jews and Samaritans were enemies and not a single Jew would allow the Samaritan to help him even in such extreme situations. Maybe, with this parable Jesus wanted to say that the salvation is not granted to selected groups of people and despite of other ethnic origin they are all equal in the eyes of God. Further, these verses are showing that division of people based on their origin is false in essence. The priest and Levite being considered closer to God did not help the person who was in need of assistance, while the Samaritan who was hated by Jews took care of the beaten man. Unfortunately, very little has been written about the historical relationship between Jesus and Samaritans. First, Samaritans could be defined in terms of geography - they lived in the region called Samaria. Second, Samaritans could be defined in terms of ethnic origin - they were the mixed group of people and had non-Jewish blood. Third, Samaritans can be defined in terms of their religion - they were the Semites who worshiped Yahweh (Brown 1990). Despite of the definition Jesus assumed, it is clear that Samaritans were not welcomed by the Jews of that time. Even though the focus of the

Business Law - Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Business Law - - Term Paper Example Joseph buys a Tefal Pan Actifry. The pan catches fire and burns the members of the family. There are three questions, the first question pertains to the moral obligation which the company owes him, the second question pertains to negligence of the product and the third question pertains to the legal contract between Joseph and the product seller. Joseph Price was a purchaser of Tefal Actifry. He contended to the quality and way the product was made, and therefore the company was under a moral and legal obligation to sell him good quality product. However, in the use of the product, it turned out to be a faulty one and therefore under the Sale of Goods Act 1979, the consumer, which in this case is Joseph Price, has a right to avail from the manufacturers of the faulty goods, which in this case is Tefal Actifry. Under the law laid down in Section 48 (b) of the Sale of Goods Act, it is pertinent to note that the law allows the consumer to file for complaints when the goods sold by the seller turns out to be faulty and wrongly made. Acting on behalf of Jospeph as his legal advisor, I would advise him to file a suit against Tefal Actifry and hold them liable under Section 48 (b) in which case they shall be punished by the Court of law. The seller in this case has to replace the goods since the actifry turned out to be non-functional, dangerous, and extremely faulty for the people who use it. Even though the company claims that only 0.4 per cent of the products are faulty, it does not rule out the fact that those who used it and in the case my client Joseph Price, and to those it had turned out to be faulty, the company should incur the damages and replace the faulty product with a better fool proof product. In the case of Bowes v Richardson & Son Ltd, 28 January 2004 the consumer was allowed to reject the faulty car after a period of 7 months. Dave and Sandra (Joseph’s parents) suffered burns and a lung

Literary vs. Research Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Literary vs. Research Theory - Essay Example The final example is the New Criticism based on moral and religious structures (Klarer, 2004). Research theory, on the other hand, is a systematic method, mostly used in social sciences, to generate new theories or test existing ones on the basis of data analysis. In the case of creation of a new theory, an existing theory is used as a basis for suggestions as to what kind of research should be carried out. Challenging an existing theory consists of using data as dictated by the null hypothesis based on the existing theory. Examples of research theories include descriptive theories, co relational theories and experimental theories (Klarer, 2004). Both literary and research theories have methods or schools of thought that cannot be clearly cut from one another. They both provide a general sense of a basis in which we can base our arguments as we try to explain the complexities of various aspects in life. Both theories are important in attempting to rationalize different phenomena, and in trying the core cause-effect relationship (Klarer,

Policies for Primary School Teachers

Policies for Primary School Teachers Introduction This essay discusses the question, â€Å"What do you consider to be an effective primary teacher?†. With reference to recent research, government initiatives and your own experience, the essay explores this question, based on my own educational principles and the ways in which these will underpin your professional practice in the future. The essay begins by reviewing the Government policies and initiatives that are relevant to the research question, discussing, in particular, the document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) and the subsequent Primary Strategy framework for primary education. The essay then moves on to discuss the aims of these policies and initiatives and the implications these have had for schools and teachers. The assessment framework is discussed, and how this impacts on teacher effectiveness is also noted. The essay then moves on to looking at the qualities of effective teachers, and effective teaching in a primary setting, and concludes that some of the facets of Government policies and initiatives – such as continual assessments run counter to my ethos of effective teaching and actually serve as little other than distractions from pure teaching time, through all the administration such assessments bring and the amount of time this takes away fro m lesson planning, for example. In terms of Government policy towards primary education, in 2003, the Government launched the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) which set out a vision for the future of primary education built, formally, on the striving for higher standards through the formulation of a rich and varied curriculum which is aimed at developing children in a number of ways. As explained by the DfCSF (2008), the key to making this vision a reality lies in the need to empower primary school children to take control of their own learning, to be innovative and to develop their own character. The DfCSF (2008) also noted that the aims of the policy Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) should also be achieved through schools being able to set their own targets, based on challenging but realistic targets for the progress of each individual child, with LEA targets being set after this. In addition, the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) encourages schools to network to learn from each other and to develop good practice, in partnership with parents in order to help children as far as possible and to forge links between schools and communities (DfCSF, 2008). The policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) was intended as an enabler, with leadership in schools being strengthened in terms of professional development of teachers towards the whole curriculum, and in terms of helping schools themselves design broad curriculum that links different areas of the curriculum and which thus provides children with as wide as possible a range of learning experiences (DfCSF, 2008). The policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) argues that the best primary schools are those that offer a broad and rich curriculum, and that, based on this it is fundamental that schools develop their own distinctive character through taking ownership of the curriculum, by being creative and innovative, using tests, targets and tables to help every child to develop his or her potential (DfES, 2003). Essentially, the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) urged the promotion of excellence in primary teaching through building on the success of the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies, using the new Primary Strategies to extend this success in to other areas of the curriculum, including in foreign languages, sport and creativity, amongst other areas, measuring the success of this curriculum through assessments (DfES, 2003). There are many ways in which assessment activities can take place in the classroom, including monitoring normal classwork activities, using specific assessment tests designed by the teacher, designating assessment tasks as part of normal classwork, providing assessment tasks as part of homework assignments, and others, which are the domain of higher educational levels than the foundation stage, such as the use of standardized National Curriculum tests and/or formal examinations (Kyriacou, 1999; p.107). Kyriacou (1999; p.107-109) details each of these assessment protocols, showing, for example, how, although monitoring classroom activity is a part of the normal routine of a teacher, the monitoring, when it becomes investigative and active can become a form of assessment (Kyriacou, 1999; p.107; Kyriacou, 1997). In this way, the monitoring can inform teaching practice, through leading to suggestions for improvements in how learning is delivered, based on observations of areas in which t he children are failing to learn as quickly or as thoroughly compared to other areas, for example. In this way, monitoring and assessment can be a route through which teaching can be improved and teachers can become more effective. In terms of how the assessment is actually made (i.e., the actual process of assessment), evidence is collected through an ongoing process, via the teachers knowledge of the child, information from other contributors who are in regular contact with the child, anecdotes about significant moments in the child’s development, and focused assessments, based on observation where observation is understood to mean â€Å"the practice of watching and listening to a child as they engage in an activity and demonstrate specific knowledge, skills and understanding† (NAA, 2007). As pointed out by Kyriacou (1999; p.106), it is imperative that an adequate record of the child’s achievements, and their assessment, is kept, and that portfolios of children’s work are kept in order to exemplify the standards that are being sought, and so that teachers can use these records as a benchmark to build upon, through which improvements to teaching practice can be made and teacher effe ctiveness be improved. Teachers thus need to be competent in many areas in order to ensure that the assessment process goes smoothly for all concerned and that the assessment process is something that can be useful for teachers, in terms of improving teaching practices. The need for teachers to be competent in the assessment of children is reflected in the fact that the DfEE (2000) list of standards for teachers lists the ability to assess and record each pupils progress systematically as a competency (Kyriacou, 1999; p.106). In addition, it is fundamental that assessment judgements are agreed amongst all concerned, so that all those involved can make the best, fullest, use of the information. The Primary Strategies outlined in the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) thus built on the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies to lead to the development of the Primary Curriculum, with the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies being embedded in the Primary Strategy (under the framework of the Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics that was launched in October 2006) (DfCSF, 2008). This new framework builds on the learning that has taken place since the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies were launched in 2003, providing new structures and new impetus to the vision embodied in the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003), extending, as it does, the support given only to literacy and to numeracy to other subjects (DfCSF, 2008). The overall ethos of the new Primary Strategy framework is that excellent education is an education that is tailored to child ren’s specific needs, allowing them to engage with the educational process and giving them the start they need to be able to succeed in the context of secondary education (DfCSF, 2008). In terms of the future education of primary children, and how assessments at the primary level affect children’s future educational development, it is well documented that the level of educational attainment of a child (as assessed through Key Stage 1 assessments) cannot – alone – be used as an indicator of how well a particular teacher or school has performed; it is the relative progress that needs to be considered in terms of making an assessment of how children’s future educational prospects are affected by the assessment process (Kyriacou, 1999; p. 106). Ways to do this include taking baseline measurements of achievement and comparing these with achievement following a certain time period of education, or taking value-added measurements (Kyriacou, 1999; p.106). In terms of tracking how children progress beyond the primary level, the relationship between Key Stage 1 assessments and attainment in terms of National Curriculum levels needs to be explored (AAIA, 2007). As discussed by AAIA (2007), however, Key Stage 1 attainments cannot be directly related to National Curriculum levels and any such attempts would result in spurious information (NAA, 2006). It is clear, however, that the higher the child’s assessment at Key Stage 1, the more likely it is that the child would attain high levels following the National Curriculum tests (AAIA, 2007). Cohen et al. (2004) provides information on how to plan and organise classes, and shows how the Qualification and Curriculum Authority (QCA) has set out principles for early years education (QCA, 1999; 2000; 2001), on the basis that, â€Å"effective education requires both a relevant curriculum and practitioners who understand and are able to implement the curriculum requirements†¦building on what children already know and can do, encouraging a positive attitude and a disposition to learn and to protect against early failure†. As the QCA (1999, 2000, 2001) point out, early years education should be carefully structured, providing different starting points, depending on what the child can already do, should have relevant and appropriate content, matching the different levels of children’s needs and should provide planned and purposeful activities which provide opportunities for teaching both indoors and outdoors, with teachers who are able to observe and respond app ropriately to the children under their care. This is on the basis that â€Å"parents are children’s first and most enduring educators† (QCA, 2000, p.9), and that teachers provide a series of stepping stones through foundation stages, through Early Learning Goals, through primary level, which articulates with the National Curriculum which all children from age five are legally bound to follow (Cohen et al., 2004; Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 2000). Cohen et al. (2004) show how key aspects of effective learning at the primary level are active, integrated, socially constructive, cognitively constructive and linguistically rich learning, beginning where the individual learner is at themselves, in terms of their learning process, so that the individual child is the agent of their learning, empowering the children to enable their own learning by casting learning as problem-solving (Morrison, 2000; Cohen et al., 2004). As Morrison (2000; p.122) states, â€Å"the intention (of learning) is to extend play, to empower students and to enable them to take responsibility for their own, active and autonomous, learning and to develop in all aspects of their learning†. This is conducted, generally, through four key elements: classroom arrangements (with such things as centres of interest), daily schedules of plan-do-review sessions, key curricular and learning experiences and content and assessments through observation, recording and s haring, using authentic assessment and portfolios (Cohen et al., 2004). By following such suggestions for enabling learning at the primary level, continuity and progression are ensured. Continuity is generally defined, and understood, as ensuring that the overall aims, values and beliefs that give direction to, and put boundaries around, the scheme of work are consistent, regardless of who is teaching or answering later questions (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002). Progression is defined, and understood, generally, as the process through which the schools planned activities gradually extend pupils’ thinking, their exploration of values and attitudes, enrich language, knowledge and strategies through increasingly demanding inputs and challenging explorations, matched to pupils chronological age, readiness and circumstance (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002). Through ensuring continuity and progression, children can be enabled to achieve the goals they want to achieve, within the frameworks that are set them. My personal teaching ethos This section takes one or two of my principles to explain how I intend to be an effective primary teacher, using examples from your my school experiences. In essence, I concur with Cohen et al. (2004) that, â€Å"effective education requires both a relevant curriculum and practitioners who understand and are able to implement the curriculum requirements†¦building on what children already know and can do, encouraging a positive attitude and a disposition to learn and to protect against early failure† and I agree with the overall stated ethos of the new Primary Strategy framework is that excellent education is an education that is tailored to children’s specific needs, allowing them to engage with the educational process and giving them the start they need to be able to succeed in the context of secondary education (DfCSF, 2008). Taylor and Hayes (2001) provide a discussion as to how education should be delivered, leading me to arrive at several conclusions as to how I should organize my time as a teacher in order to provide the most effective teaching possible to my pupils. I agree with the aims of the Primary Strategy as set out in the policy document, Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003), which encourages schools and teachers to network to learn from each other and to develop good practice, in partnership with parents in order to help children as far as possible and to forge links between schools and communities (DfCSF, 2008). The dictates of the assessment processes and the Curriculum mean I have to teach within these boundaries, but this does not mean that lessons have to be rigid and that assessments and tests and Curriculum have to be frightening terms to primary age pupils. One of my responsibilities as an effective teacher is to prepare students, as well as possible, for the assessments and to teach the Curriculum in such a manner that the children’s sense of wonder is upheld (see Allen and Ainley, 2007) and that children’s awareness of themselves as part of a whole and as spiritual beings is also encouraged (Eaude, 2005). My aim as a primary teacher is to foster a sense of enjoyment in the learning process and, through this, to foster a love of learning that will continue well beyond the primary level, encouraging success at the secondary level and forging a lifelong love of learning in each individual pupil, based on a sense of wonder at the world, its contents and its processes. I, personally, agree with Cohen et al. (2004), who show how key aspects of effective learning at the primary level are active, integrated, socially constructive, cognitively constructive and linguistically rich learning, beginning where the individual learner is at themselves, in terms of their learning process, so that the individual child is the agent of their learning, empowering the children to enable their own learning by casting learning as problem-solving (Morrison, 2000; Cohen et al., 2004). It is my aim as a teacher, wishing to be an effective teacher, to foster the empowerment of children, through developing a sense of the wonder of learning and empowering the children to direct their own learning, within the context of the Curriculum, so that children feel they are capable of learning and are capable of achieving the standards they set themselves. The Success of New Labour’s Policy Towards Primary Education Tymms (2004) look at how successful the changes to primary education have been, following the introduction of the Numeracy and Literacy Strategies and finds that, whilst the introduction of these Strategies contributed to a rise in standards, independent tests of children’s attainment have shown that this rise in standards is not as widespread nor as high as claimed and that, as such, an independent body should be set up to monitor standards over time, with the purpose of testing how Government planning for education is actually being received on the ground, as it were. A recent Oftsted report (Ofsted, 2003) also shows that some of the aims of the National Numeracy and Literacy Strategy were not achieved (with weak subject knowledge being a common failure of schools), suggesting the Government’s approach to primary education needs to be looked at further. Allen and Ainley (2007) back this suggestion, through their analysis of education in the UK, presented in their book Education make you fick, innit? Allen and Ainley argue that as institutionalized learning has become more common-place in the Uk, through schools and work-based training programmes, possibilities have been foreclosed for emancipating minds, something that is increasingly being applied to primary level education, through the introduction of the Primary Strategy, for example, and the assessment-based curriculum this embodies, which, argue Allen and Ainley (2007) forces teachers to concentrate more on training children in the Curriculum for the purpose of attaining high scores on the assessments than on actually instilling a sense of wonder in learning. Allen and Ainley (2007) argue that this process is killing the sense of wonder in children, and that, even for primary school children, education, the process of going to school, has become little more than a daily grind, rather than a joyous process the children are happy to undertake because they enjoy the process and because the process can bring them knowledge and enjoyment. This essay has discussed the question, â€Å"What do you consider to be an effective primary teacher?†. With reference to recent research, government initiatives and your own experience, the essay has explored this question, based on my own educational principles and the ways in which these will underpin your professional practice in the future. The essay began by reviewing the Government policies and initiatives that are relevant to the research question, discussing, in particular, the document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) and the subsequent Primary Strategy framework for primary education. The essay then moved on to discuss the aims of these policies and initiatives and the implications these have had for schools and teachers. The assessment framework was then discussed, and how this impacts on teacher effectiveness was also noted. The essay then moved on to looking at the qualities of effective teachers, and effective teachin g in a primary setting, and concluded that some of the facets of Government policies and initiatives – such as continual assessments run counter to my ethos of effective teaching and actually serve as little other than distractions from pure teaching time, through all the administration such assessments bring and the amount of time this takes away from lesson planning, for example. The main conclusion to the essay is that effective teaching at the primary level should serve to instill a sense of the wonder of learning and should open children’s minds to the possibilities that learning, and the learning process, encompasses. I converge with Allen and Ainley (2007) that the current trend towards assessments, more assessments and yet more assessments is not healthy for children, because it causes stress and can initiate a sense of failure in children who do not achieve high scores on these assessments and also because managing these assessments takes time away from teaching, through all the administration that the tests generate. The argument that these tests do little than to confirm that the education policies the Government is espousing are correct seems valid, and it is, as has been seen, in any case questionable that the standards suggested by the Government, in the Primary Strategy are actually leading to rises in standards (see Tymms, 2004). That the overall stated ethos of the new Primary Strategy framework is that an excellent education is an education that is tailored to children’s specific needs, allowing them to engage with the educational process and giving them the start they need to be able to succeed in the context of secondary education (DfCSF, 2008) is thus a good basis to begin, as an effective teacher, but, in order to avoid boredom in the education process, and psychological problems, due to the huge amount of testing and assessment primary children are subject to, effective teaching not only needs to teach the Curriculum and prepare children for the battery of tests and assessments they will be subjected to, but also needs to foster the empowerment of children, through developing a sense of the wonder of learning and empowering the children to direct their own learning, within the context of the Curriculum, so that children feel they are capable of learning and are capable of achieving the standards they set themselves. Effective teachers are thus not only bound by the dictates of Government policy and teaching research which suggests how teachers should teach, but they are, in my opinion, also bound by a responsibility to children, to instill in children a sense of the wonder of learning. In my opinion, and something I will endeavour to achieve in my teaching practice, this sense of wonder can be best achieved through empowering children to realise their potential and to realise they can achieve their goals, through fostering a love of learning. These qualities not only make for an effective teacher but also an inspiring teacher, who will inspire their pupils to want to learn. References AAIA (2007). Assessing children’s attainments in the foundation stage: guidance produced by the AAIA. Available from http://www.aaia.org.uk/PDF/FAQs%20-%20assessing%20childrens%20attainment%20in%20the%20foundation%20stage.pdf [Accessed on 29th February 2008]. Alexander, R. (2004). Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education. Cambridge J. of Education 34(1), pp.7-33. Allen, M Ainley P (2007). Education make you fick, innit? Tufnell Press, Reading. Brown, M. et al. (1998). Is the National Numeracy strategy research-based? Brit. J. Educ. Studies 46, pp.362-385. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2004). A guide to teaching practice. Routledge Falmer. DfCSF (2008). The National Strategies: Primary. Available from http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/about/ [Accessed on 29th February 2008]. DfEE (1998). Teachers: meeting the challenge of change. London: DfEE. DfEE (2000). Curriculum guidance for K1 stage. Available from http://www.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/eyfs/resources/downloads/5585_cg_foundation_stage.pdf [Accessed 29th February 2008]. DfES (2003). Excellence and enjoyment: a strategy for primary schools. London: DfES. DfES (2004). Department for Education and Skills: five year strategy for children and learners. London: DfES. Eaude, T (2006). Children’s spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. Learning Matters, Reading. Fabian, H. and Dunlop, A-W. (2002). Transitions in the early years: debating continuity and progression for children in early education. Routledge Falmer. Higgins, S. et al. (2002). Thinking through primary teaching. Chris Kington Publishing, Cambridge. Kyriacou, C. (1997). Effective teaching in schools. Nelson Thornes Ltd. Kyriacou, C. (1999). Essential teaching skills. Nelson Thornes Ltd. Kyriacou, C. (2005). The impact of daily maths lessons in England on pupil confidence and competence in early mathematics: a systematic review. Brit J Educ Studies 53(2), pp.168-186. Morrison, G.S. (2000). Fundamentals of Early Childhood Education. Prentice Hall. NAA (National Assessment Agency) (2007). Additional guidance on completing foundation stage profile assessments. Available from http://www.naa.org.uk/downloads/FSP_factsheet-_2007_Guidance_LA_Completing_Foundation_v042.pdf [Accessed 29th February 2008]. Ofsted (2003). The national literacy and numeracy strategies and the primary curriculum. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (2000). Report on early years learning. London: Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. Pollard, A (2002). Readings for Reflective Teaching Continuum. QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) (1999). Early learning goals. London: QCA. QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) (2000). Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage. . London: QCA. QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) (2001). Planning for learning in the foundation stage. . London: QCA. Siraj-Blatchford, I, Sylva, K, Taggart, B, Melhuish, E., Sammons, P, Elliot, K. The EPPE Project [1997-2003] Available from http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/teachers/ issue34/secondary/features/steppingup www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/ ks1-2citizenship/cit1/2 [Accessed on 29th February 2008]. Springate, D (2004). Democracy in Schools: Some European perspectives. Springate, D (2006). Empowering Children Through their own Research. Taylor, W. and Hayes, D (2004). The RoutledgeFalmer Guide to Key Debates in Education. RoutledgeFalmer. Tymms, P. (2004). Are standards rising in English primary schools? Brit Educ Res J 30(4), pp.477-494. Webb, R. et al. (2004). A comparative analysis of primary teacher professionalism in England and Finland. Comp Educ 40(1), pp.83-107. Webb, R. and Vulliamy, G. (2006). The impact of New Labour’s education policy on teadhers and teaching at Key Stage 2. FORUM 48(2), pp.145-158. Wilce, H (2007). Nurture Groups: Can they prevent bad behaviour in the classroom?

Enuma Elish - The Babylonian Creation Story :: Enuma Elish

Enuma Elish - The Babylonian Creation Story Like the Greek Theogony, the creation of the world in the Enuma elish begins with the universe in a formless state, from which emerge two primary gods, male and female: When the skies above were not yet named Nor earth below pronounced by name, Apsu, the first one, their begetter, And maker Tiamat, who bore them all, Had mixed their waters together, But had not formed pastures, nor discovered reed-beds; When yet no gods were manifest, Nor names pronounced, nor destinies decreed, Then gods were born within them. (Dalley 233) Apsu, the male "begetter," is the sweet waters, while Tiamat, the female "maker," is the bitter, salt waters. Sweet and salt water mingle together at the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, site of the origins of Mesopotamian civilization. Some translators see the word "maker" in line 4 not as an adjective describing Tiamat but as another god, named Mummu, who emerges at the same time. As you might expect, Mummu means "maker," "form," "mold," or "matrix." Besides being Apsu's vizier, Mummu is the mold or the undifferentiated substance from which things are made. Like Eros at the beginning of the Theogony, this Mummu-power is necessary to get the job of birth-creation going. Stephanie Dalley notes that "the bit-mummu was the term for a workshop that produced statues of deities" (274). N. K. Sandars, however, sees mummu as potential, or entropy (27). In this early period, nothing is named yet because nothing has appeared or been created yet. Notice that pasture-land must be form ed--wrested from the desert by the hard work of digging and irrigation. The reed-beds mentioned in line 6 are handier than one might think: in southern Iraq today, the marsh dwellers live and work in floating houses and boats made from the reeds in the reed-beds. The "destinies" mentioned in line 8 are somewhat like the Sumerian me--cultural patterns and ways of living. After the waters of Apsu and Tiamat mix, the gods Lahmu and Lahamu ("slime, mud") emerge. And from this pair come Anshar ("whole sky") and Kishar ("whole earth"), meaning perhaps "the horizon, the circular rim of heaven and the corresponding circular rim of earth" (Jacobsen 168). Anshar and Kishar give birth to Anu, the sky god, who in turn begets what one translation calls "his likeness" (Heidel 18) Ea, the trickster god of the flowing waters, who is familiar to us as Enki.

Management Planning and Ethics

First American Guard Services Company provides unique security services to all our clients. To maximize on our services, the company operates round the clock to ensure all the customers’ requirements are met.   Our core values are innovations, competence and reliability.   The company strives to offer quality services, professional development and high ethical standards.   Our team is highly committed to understand customers’ expectations and solve all safety problems.   The services offered not only will they accommodate all the clients’ needs but also exceed their expectations. (Francesco, 2006) Organizational Structure First American Guard Services is made up of qualified and professional team.   The company is under the Chief executive officer, the Vice president of company operations and Vice president of marketing and Finance.   The Chief Executive Officer manages the whole company and holds the final word.   The VP is in charge of departmental operations and the second VP is in charge of marketing and finance. The planning Function of the Management To ensure the smooth flow of all the activities within the company, the company has decided to embark on management planning and ethics plans to harmonize all the plans laid out.   The management will streamline legal issues, ethics and corporate social responsibility and how it impacts the management and business planning.   All the issues will enhance proper communication, accountability and clarify the vision of all the plans.   The corporate social responsibility will broaden the perspectives of communications at the corporate level within the management so that sound policies can be made. The management consists of the CEO, and the two VPs (Francesco, 2006) Legal issues are vital if any organization must perform well.   The legal issues affect the management since they are responsible for laying out rules and regulations that staff members are expected to adhere to.   First American Guard Company’s management will evaluate all the processes to improve the performance of the management.   The Chief executive will lead the team by initiating workshops and seminars whereby they will be exposed to management courses.   The courses will enhance ethical standards and adhere to the law. (Francesco, 2006) Legal issues, ethical factors as well as corporate social responsible are interrelated since they affect performance of the management and ultimately output of the organization. (Francesco, 2006) Legally, there are rules stipulated by the law that businesses must follow.   The rules determine the types of decisions and plans made at the management level.   Some of the legal issues will determine the quality of services offered by First American, to ensure they meet the standards set by the law.   Despite all the innovations, that the management hopes to come up with, they must be within the law.   On the other hand, ethics are designed by the company, that is, code of ethics indicating the conduct and organizations expectations of all the employees.   The ethical infrastructure will support the effective implementation of ethical responsibility and corporate strategies.   (Francesco, 2006) The ethical training will be directed to the first American Guard service team, so that the members can make use of moral reasoning tools so that questions related to ethics and corporate activities are properly addressed.   The image of the management relies on the code of ethics.   Ethical standards set by the company are usually the crucial tools which enable the management carry out corporate, social and ethical responsibilities.   The function in essence is beyond legal requirements. (Francesco, 2006) The corporate social responsibility will however consider the international standard as well as the best practices. (Francesco, 2006) Conclusion According to many writers, the social responsibility of any business must have ethical responsibilities.   First American Guard Services Company has social responsibilities which will further be subdivided into ethical, legal and economic.   In addition, the ethical responsibilities of the company are parallel to the legal issues. (Francesco, 2006) The management function will therefore revolve around harmonizing all the issues concerned, to ensure all the business plans, implementation adhere to the management function.   This is because, all legal, social and ethical guidelines, determine the policies that the management will formulate and who the implementers will be. (Francesco, 2006) It is important to note that, most social responsibilities are not clear and are more or less an assortment of legal and moral responsibilities, vested interests and some moral ideals.   This package however, inhibits the managements to consider other ethical responsibilities of the company.   This means that if the company trades on ideals, corporate social responsibility myth diverts the attention from the duties of the management. (Francesco, 2006) References Francesco, P. (2006) Developing Corporate Social Responsibility, Edward Elgar   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Publishing.            

Gallons to Liters - Unit Conversion Example Problem

Gallons to Liters Problem This example problem demonstrates how to convert gallons to liters. Gallons and liters are two common units of volume. The liter is the metric volume unit, while the gallon is the English unit. However, the American gallon and the British gallon are not the same!  The gallon used in the United States  is equal to exactly 231 cubic inches or 3.785411784 liters. The  Imperial  gallon or UK gallon is equal to approximately 277.42 cubic inches. If youre asked to perform the conversion, make sure you know which country its for or you wont get the correct answer. This example uses the American gallon, but the set-up for the problem works the same for the Imperial gallon (just using 277.42 instead of 3.785). Key Takeaways: Gallons to Liters The unit conversion between (American) gallons and liters is 1 gallon 3.785 liters.British and American gallons are not the same. The American gallon is a smaller unit of volume and has a different conversion factor.There are about four liters per gallon. Gallons to Liters Problem What is the volume of a 5 gallon bucket in liters? Solution 1 gallon 3.785 liters Set up the conversion so the desired unit will be cancelled out. In this case, we want liters to be the remaining unit. volume in L (volume in gal) x (3.785 L/1 gal) volume in L (5 x 3.785) L volume in L 18.925 L In other word, there are about 4x more liters when you convert from gallons. Answer A 5 gallon bucket contains 18.925 liters. Liters to Gallon Conversion You can use the same conversion factor to convert liters to gallons or you can use: 1 liter 0.264 US gallons To find how many gallons are in 4 liters, for example: gallons 4 liters x 0.264 gallons/liter The liters cancel out, leaving the gallon unit: 4 liters 1.056 gallons Keep this in mind: there are about 4 liters per US gallon.

Effect of light on photo synthesis essays

Effect of light on photo synthesis essays In order for a plant to photosynthesise it will need three things, light, water and Carbon Dioxide. If there is a lack in any of these things the process of photosynthesis the plant will not photosynthesise properly. In this coursework I am going to look at the effects of light on photosynthesis and I am going to do this experiment by moving the source of light closer and closer to a certain type of plant and I am going to bring the light towards the plant 10cm at a time. I predict that by moving the source of light closer to the plant I would speed up the rate of photosynthesis in the plant. The chlorophyll uses light energy to perform photosynthesis. It can only do this as fast as the light energy is arriving. Chlorophyll actually only absorbs the red and blue ends of the visible light spectrum, but not the green light in the middle which is reflected back. This is why the plant looks green. Chlorophyll is an ENZYME in that it works the best when it is warm but not too hot. If the light level is raised, the rate of photosynthesis will increase steadily but only up to a certain point, beyond that it would not make any difference because then it will be either the temperature of the Carbon Dioxide level which is wrong and which is now the limiting factor. Conversely if the light level is too low, then changing the amount of Carbon Dioxide would not increase the rate raised to match the Carbon Dioxide level. The method of this experiment is not complicated. Cut a stem of Canadian pondweed of about 3cm in length. Fill a test-tube with pond water, and place it in a clamp, and then in a large beaker of cold water. Connect the end of the pondweed to the apparatus. Insert a thermometer into the beaker, and record the temperature at the beginning and end of each experiment, merely as a precaution against a ...

Non Profit Corp Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Non Profit Corp Law - Essay Example A corporation is permitted under the Virginia State laws on nonprofit corporation to pay compensation of some reasonable amount to the members, director officers for the services rendered. It may also pay pensions and benefits conforming to the purposes of the firm as well as make distributions as permitted by the Act upon dissolution or liquidation (Bruce, 2009). However, no such payment, distribution or benefits may be deemed to be dividends or income. As a result of this prohibition, most of the corporations in the state of Virginia that intent to conduct business for profit making are organized in form of stock corporations. The Internal Revenue Code section 501 expressly prohibits inurnment of earnings of an entity to the benefit of any private individual or shareholder. The code also imposes excise tax on excess benefit transaction between a disqualified person and any organization as described under section 501 (Bruce, 2009). IRS has provided that an organization shall operate primarily for exempt purposes. Under the IRS code, private inurnment applies to benefits to those who control or influence the activities of the organization such as directors, management, officers, the physicians and medical staff. Private inurnment is based on the requirement that the organization serve a public purpose and not a private one. It prohibits a nonprofit from extending a substantial part of the activities or resources on non- exempt purposes (Bruce, 2009). This does not mean that the firm cannot have receipts that exceed the expenditures. Rather, the organization should use the revenues to further the exempt purposes but not to further the interests of insiders. The crux of the prohibitions of private inurnment and the use of excess benefit lies in enriching the lives of others at the expense of furthering the exempt purposes of an organization (Bruce, 2009). It provides that activities that

How important are the opinions of experts in the search for knowledge Essay - 1

How important are the opinions of experts in the search for knowledge - Essay Example When we know a subject ourselves, things are less complicated. For example, when a child learns counting, she can count the fingers in her hand. Generally, a human child has five fingers in each hand. Exceptions apart, the child counts her fingers in each hand and obtains the knowledge herself that she has got ten fingers in her two hands. Similarly, when the child looks at the sky, she finds the birds flying and learns that birds fly. However, this perception may not be very much true. The reason is that all birds do not fly. Now the child needs a source of information which will tell her that all birds do not fly (For instance, Kiwis don’t fly). Hence the child needs to know that where can she find complete information and true knowledge, and that’s why she needs to be sent to a school. In the school, the teacher of Life Science would tell her that generally birds fly, but all birds do not fly. Else, she can gather this information by reading books, watching education al television channels, etc. Either we can discover things ourselves, or we need a guide to help us comprehend the world around. This guide can be a book or a journal, or an expert. An expert in a field is a valuable source of information concerning that field. When I was in the primary school, I had an interesting incident in my life. One day in science class, Mr. Williams, our science teacher, told us that the plants cannot survive without light. Plants need light energy to manufacture their food. I raised my hand and argued that watering the plants was enough for their survival. The plants in the garden needed only water to grow, and nothing else. Mr. Williams was patient and he asked the other children that whether they agreed with me or not. Some of my classmates were confused. Mr. Williams understood that mere theoretical knowledge was not enough. Immediately, he brought a plant in a pot from the garden, wrapped it in a black wrapper, and kept it in a corner of the